Over the past several decades, stress research has experienced a broadening of its pathologic focus to encompass the concept of resilience. There is a wealth of research on resilience but no general consensus regarding its conceptualization. Some define resilience as attaining eventual favorable outcomes following exposure to adversity. Others define it as specific relatively short-term responses characterized by a return to homeostasis after initial disruption due to a stressor, and still others refer to resilience as resources that enable the individual to withstand or recover from major stressors. Many of the existing conceptualizations of resilience are not applicable in the context of chronic stress which is particularly harmful to health. How do adults who experience chronic stress survive, manage, and thrive, and what resources enable them to do so? In this paper, we consider these questions by reviewing traditions of research and definitions of resilience in order to inform an understanding of resilience in general, and for the study of chronic stress in adults. Based on a review of the literature, we developed a taxonomy of resilience resources that can be applied broadly, and guide future research.

References

Abdou, C., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Campos, B., Hilmert, C. J., Parker Dominguez, T., Hobel, C. J. et al. (2010). Communalism predicts prenatal affect, stress, and physiology better than ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(3), 395–403. doi:10.1037/a0019808.
Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L. et al. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49(1), 15–24. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.49.1.15.
Adler, N., Marmot, M., McEwen, B., & Stewart, J. (Eds.) (1999). Socioeconomic Status and Health in Industrial Nations: Social, Psychological, and Biological Pathways. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.
Antoni, M. H., Lechner, S., Diaz, A., Vargas, S., Holley, H., Phillips, K. et al. (2009). Cognitive behavioral stress management effects on psychosocial and physiological adaptation in women undergoing treatment for breast cancer. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 23(5), 580–591. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2008.09.005.
Antonovsky, A. (1987). The salutogenic perspective: Toward a new view of health and illness. Advances, 4(1), 47–55.
Aspinwall, L. G. (2011). Future-oriented thinking, proactive coping, and the management of potential threats to health and well-being. In S. Folkman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health and Coping (pp. 334–365). Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 417–436. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.417.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: Freeman.
Batson, C. D. (1990). How social an animal? The human capacity for caring. American Psychologist, 45, 336–346.
Baum, A., Garofalo, J. P., & Yali, A. M. (1999). Socioeconomic status and health in industrial nations: Social, psychological and biological pathways. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 896, 131–144.
Berkman, L. F., & Glass, T. (2000). Social integration, social networks, social support, and health. In L. F. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social Epidemiology (pp. 137–173). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IA and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349–361. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.349.
Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59(1), 20–28. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20.
Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Clarifying and extending the construct of adult resilience. American Psychologist, 60(3), 265–267. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.3.265b.
Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2006). Psychological resilience after disaster: New York City in the aftermath of the September 11^th terrorist attack. Psychological Science, 17(3), 181–186.
Bonanno, G. A., Westphal, M., & Mancini, A. D. (2010). Resilience to loss and potential trauma. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 11–125.
Bower, J. E., Kemeny, M. E., Taylor, S. E., & Fahey, J. L. (1998). Cognitive processing, discovery of meaning, CD4 decline, and AIDS-related mortality among bereaved HIV-seropositive men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(6), 979–986. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.6.979.
Bower, J. E., Moskowitz, J., & Epel, E. (2009). Is benefit finding good for your health? Pathways linking positive life changes after stress and physical health outcomes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(6), 337–341. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01663.x.
Bower, J., Low, C., Moskowitz, J., Sepah, S., & Epel, E. (2008). Benefit finding and physical health: Positive psychological changes and enhanced allostasis. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 223–244. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00038.x.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 211–237.
Buhrmester, M. D., Blanton, H., & Swann, W. B., Jr (2011). Implicit self-esteem: Nature, measurement, and a new way forward. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(2), 365–385.
Bulman, R., & Wortman, C. B. (1977). Attributions of blame and coping in the “Real World”: Severe accident victims react to their lot. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 35(5), 351–363. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.35.5.351.
Campos, B., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Abdou, C. M., Hobel, C. J., Glynn, L. M., & Sandman, C. A. (2008). Familism, social support, and stress: Positive implications for pregnant Latinas. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(2), 155–162. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.2.155.
Carver, C. S. (1998). Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages. Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 245–266. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01217.x.
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2010). Optimism. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 879–889. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.006.
Castro, F., & Murray, K. E. (2010). Cultural adaptation and resilience: Controversies, issues, and emerging models. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra, J. Hall, J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 375–403). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Chen, E., Hanson, M. D., Paterson, L. Q., Griffin, M. J., Walker, H. A., & Miller, G. A. (2006). Socioeconomic status and inflammatory processes in childhood asthma: The role of psychological stress. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 117, 1014–1020. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.01.036.
Cheng, C. (2003). Cognitive and motivational processes underlying coping flexibility: A dual-process model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 425–438. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.425.
Chesney, M. A., Neilands, T. B., Chambers, D. B., Taylor, J. M., & Folkman, S. (2006). A validity and reliability study of the coping self-efficacy scale. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 421–437. doi: 10.1348/135910705X53155.
Cicchetti, D., & Garmezy, N. (1993). Prospects and promises in the study of resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 497–502. doi: 10.1017/S0954579400004429.
Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64, 194–204.
Cohen, S. (1988). Psychosocial models of the role of social support in the etiology of physical disease. Health Psychology, 7(3), 269–297. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.7.3.269.
Cohen, S., Doyle, W. J., & Baum, A. (2006). Socioeconomic status is associated with stress hormones. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 414–420. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000221236.37158.b9.
Cohen, S., Kessler, R., & Gordon, L. (Ed.) (1995). Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 95(2), 310–357.
Cohler, B. J. (1987). Adversity, resilience, and the study of lives. In E. Anthony, B. J. Cohler, E. Anthony & B. J. Cohler (Eds.), The Invulnerable Child (pp. 363–424). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2002). Resilience in midwestern families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective, longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(2), 361–373. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00361.x.
Dienstbier, R., & Zillig, L. (2009). Toughness Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (2nd edn, pp. 537–548). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Dunkel Schetter, C. (2010). Psychological science on pregnancy: Stress processes, biopsychosocial models, and emerging research issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 531–558. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.031809.130727.
Ellis, B. J., & Boyce, W. (2008). Biological sensitivity to context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(3), 183–187. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00571.x.
Epel, E. S., McEwen, B. S., & Ickovics, J. R. (1998). Embodying psychological thriving: Physical thriving in response to stress. Journal of Social Issues, 54(2), 301–322. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.671998067.
Evans, G., & Kim, P. (2010). Multiple risk exposure as a potential explanatory mechanism for the socioeconomic status-health gradient. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 174–189. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05336.x.
Feder, A., Nestler, E., Westphal, M., & Charney, D. (2010). Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience to stress. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. S. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 35–54). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Fleming, I., Baum, A., Davidson, L. M., Rectanus, E., & McArdle, S. S. (1987). Chronic stress as a factor in physiologic reactivity to challenge. Health Psychology, 6(3), 221–237. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.6.3.221.
Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Stress, positive emotion, and coping. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 115–118. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00073.
Fortinsky, R. H., Tennen, H., Frank, N., & Affleck, G. (2007). Health and psychological consequences of caregiving. In C. M. Aldwin, C. L. Park, A. Spiro, C. M. Aldwin, C. L. Park & A. Spiro (Eds.), Handbook of Health Psychology and Aging (pp. 227–249). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13(2), 172–175. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00431.
Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365–376. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.365.
Fresco, D. M., Williams, N. L., & Nugent, N. R. (2006). Flexibility and negative affect: Examining the associations of explanatory flexibility and coping flexibility to each other and to depression and anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30(2), 201–210. doi: 10.1007/s10608-006-9019-8.
Friedkin, N. E. (2004). Social cohesion. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 409–425.
Friedman, H. S. (1991). The Self-healing Personality: Why Some People Achieve Health and Others Succumb to Illness. New York, NY, US: Henry Holt and Co.
Friedman, H. S. (2007). Personality, disease, and self-healing. In H. S. Friedman, R. Silver, H. S. Friedman & R. Silver (Eds.), Foundations of Health Psychology (pp. 172–199). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Gaines, S. O. J., Marelich, W. D., Bledsoe, K. L., Steers, W. N., Henderson, M. C., Granrose, C. S. et al. (1997). Links between race/ethnicity and cultural values as mediated by racial/ethnic identity and moderated by gender Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1460–1476.
Gallo, L. C., de los Monteros, K. E., & Shivpuri, S. (2009). Socioeconomic status and health: What is the role of reserve capacity? Currrent Directions in Psychoological Science, 18(5), 269–274. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01650.x.
Gallo, L. C., & Matthews, K. A. (2003). Understanding the association between socioeconomic status and physical health: Do negative emotions play a role? Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 10–51.
Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416–430. doi:10.1177/0002764291034004003.
Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry, 56(1), 127–136.
Geronimus, A. (1996). Black/white differences in the relationship of maternal age to birthweight: A population-based test of the weathering hypothesis. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 42(4), 589–597.
Geronimus, A. (2001). Understanding and eliminating racial inequalities in women’s health in the United States: The role of the weathering conceptual framework. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association, 56(4), 133.
Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). “Weathering” and age patterns of Allostatic Load Scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5), 826–833. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749.
Gilbert, D. (2006). Stumbling on Happiness. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
Glantz, M. D., & Sloboda, Z. (1999). Analysis and reconceptualization of resilience. In M. D. Glantz, J. L. Johnson, M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and Development: Positive Life Adaptations (pp. 109–126). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 351–374. doi:10.1037/a0018807.
Gottlieb, B. (Ed.) (1997). Coping with Chronic Stress. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 293–319. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938.
Helgeson, V. S., Cohen, S., Schulz, R., & Yasko, J. (2000). Group support interventions for women with breast cancer: Who benefits from what? Health Psychology, 19(2), 107–114. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.19.2.107.
Hill, P. C., & Pargament, K. I. (2003). Advances in the conceptualization and measurement of religion and spirituality. American Psychologist, 58(1), 64–74.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.44.3.513.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The Influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing Conservation of Resources Theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50(3), 337–421.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307–324. doi:10.1037//1089-2680.6.4.307.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2011). Conservation of resource theory: Its implications for stress, health and resilience. In S. Folkman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health and Coping (pp. 127–147). Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
Holahan, C. J., Moos, R. H., & Schaefer, J. A. (1996). Coping, stress resistance, and growth: Conceptualizing adaptive functioning. In M. Zeidner, N. S. Endler, M. Zeidner & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Handbook of Coping: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 24–43). Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Hopwood, M., & Treloar, C. (2008). Resilient coping: Applying adaptive responses to prior adversity during treatment for hepatitis C infection. Journal of Health Psychology, 13(1), 17–27. doi:10.1177/1359105307084308.
Hou, W., Law, C., Yin, J., & Fu, Y. (2010). Resource loss, resource gain, and psychological resilience and dysfunction following cancer diagnosis: A growth mixture modeling approach. Health Psychology, 29(5), 484–495. doi:10.1037/a0020809.
House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241(4865), 540–545. doi: 10.1126/science.3399889.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered Assumptions: Towards a New Psychology of Trauma. NY: Free Press.
John, O. P, & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research (2nd edn, pp. 102–128). New York: Guilford Press.
Johnson, D. R., White, L. K., Edwards, J. N., & Booth, A. (1986). Dimensions of marital quality: Toward methodological and conceptual refinement. Journal of Family Issues, 7(1), 31–49.
Johnson, K. A., Hill, E. D., & Cohen, A. B. (2011). Integrating the study of culture and religion: Toward a psychology of worldview. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(3), 137–152.
Johnston-Brooks, C. H., Lewis, M. A., Evans, G. W., & Whalen, C. K. (1998). Chronic stress and illness in children: The role of allostatic load. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60(5), 597–603.
Juster, R., McEwen, B. S., & Lupien, S. J. (2010). Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(1), 2–16. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.002.
Kaplan, H. B. (1999). Toward an understanding of resilience: A critical review of definitions and models. In M. D. Glantz, J. L. Johnson, M. D. Glantz & J. L. Johnson (Eds.), Resilience and Development: Positive Life Adaptations (pp. 17–83). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 865–878.
Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. (2000). Social cohesion, social capital, and health. In L. F. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social Epidemiology (pp. 174–190). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Dura, J. R., Speicher, C. E., & Trask, O. (1991). Spousal caregivers of dementia victims: Longitudinal changes in immunity and health. Psychosomatic Medicine, 53(4), 345–362.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Newton, T. L. (2001). Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychological Bulletin, 27(4), 472–503.
Kilmer, G.-R., Tedeschi, R., & Calhoun, L. (Eds.) (2010). Helping Families and Communities Recover from Disaster: Lessons Learned from Hurricane Katrina and its Aftermath. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12054-000.
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1), 1–11. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1 [Online]. Retrieved on 28 June 2011 from: http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1"\t"_blank.
Kobasa, S. C., Maddi, S. R., & Kahn, S. (1982). Hardiness and health: A prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 168–177. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.168.
Kok, B. E., Catalino, L. I., & Fredrickson, B. L.(2008). The broadening, building, buffering effects of positive emotions. In S. J. Lopez & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Positive Psychology: Exploring the Best in People, Vol 2: Capitalizing on emotional experiences (pp. 1–19). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
Kumpfer, K. L., & Hopkins, R. (1993). Recent advances in addictive disorders. Prevention. Current research and trends. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 16(1), 11–20.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. New York: Springer.
Lemery-Chalfant, K. (2010). Genes and environments: How they work together to promote resilience. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra, J. Hall, J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 55–78). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Lu, Q., Lu, M. C., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (2005). Learning from success and failure in psychosocial intervention: An evaluation of low birth weight prevention trials. Journal of Health Psychology, 10(2), 185–195. doi: 10.1177/1359105305049763.
Luthar, S. (Ed.) (2003). Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press.
Luthar, S. S. (1993). Methodological and conceptual issues in research in childhood resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(4), 441–453.
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00164.
Mäkikangas, A., Kinnunen, U., & Feldt, T. (2004). Self-esteem, dispositional optimism, and health: Evidence from cross-lagged data on employees. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(6), 556–575. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.02.001.
Marmot, M. (2003). Self esteem and health. British Medical Journal, 327(7415), 574–575. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7415.574.
Martin, R. A. (2007). The Psychology of Humor: An Integrative Approach. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.227.
Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2(4), 425–444. doi:10.1017/S0954579400005812.
Masten, A. S., & Wright, M. O. (2010). Resilience over the lifespan: Developmental perspectives on resistance, recovery, and transformation. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 213–237). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.
Matthews, K., & Gallo, L. (2011). Psychological perspectives on pathways linking socioeconomic status and physical health. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 501–530. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.031809.130711.
Mausbach, B., Patterson, T., Von Känel, R., Mills, P., Dimsdale, J., Ancoli-Israel, S. et al. (2007). The attenuating effect of personal mastery on the relations between stress and Alzheimer caregiver health: A five-year longitudinal analysis. Aging & Mental Health, 11(6), 637–644. doi:10.1080/13607860701787043.
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338(3), 171–179. doi:10.1056/NEJM199801153380307.
McEwen, B., & Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153(18), 2093–2101. doi:10.1001/archinte.153.18.2093.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in Adulthood: Structure, Dynamics, and Change. New York: Guilford Press.
Miller, G. E., & Blackwell, E. (2006). Turning up the heat: Inflammation as a mechanism linking chronic stress, depression, and heart Disease. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 269–272. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00450.x.
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex Differences in Antisocial Behaviour: Conduct Disorder, Delinquency, and Violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511490057.
Moos, R. H., & Billings, A. G. (1982). Conceptualizing and measuring coping resources and processes. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects (pp. 212–230). New York: Free Press.
Moskowitz, J. T. (2010). Positive affect at the onset of chronic illness: Planting the seeds of resilience In S. Folkman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health and Coping (pp. 465–483). Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
Mullings, L., & Wali, A. (2001). Stress and Resilience: The Social Context of Reproduction in Central Harlem. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Neuman, B., & Fawcett, J. (Eds.) (2002). The Neuman Systems Model (4th edn). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Norris, F. H., Tracy, M., & Galea, S. (2009). Looking for resilience: Understanding the longitudinal trajectories of responses to stress. Social Science & Medicine, 68(12), 2190–2198. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.043.
Ockenfels, M. C., Porter, L., Smyth, J., Kirschbaum, C., Hellhammer, D. H., & Stone, A. A. (1995). Effect of chronic stress associated with unemployment on salivary cortisol: Overall cortisol levels, diurnal rhythm, and acute stress reactivity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57(5), 460–467.
O’Leary, V., & Ickovics, J. R. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: An opportunity for a paradigm shift in women’s health. Women’s Health, 1, 121–142.
Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 730–749. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.730.
Pakenham, K. I., & Cox, S. (2009). The dimensional structure of benefit finding in multiple sclerosis and relations with positive and negative adjustment: A longitudinal study. Psychology & Health, 24(4), 373–393. doi: 10.1080/08870440701832592.
Park, C. L., Chmielewski, J., & Blank, T. O. (2010). Post-traumatic growth: Finding positive meaning in cancer survivorship moderates the impact of intrusive thoughts on adjustment in younger adults. Psycho-Oncology, 19(11), 1139–1147. doi:10.1002/pon.1680.
Pietromonaco, P. R., Uchino, B., & Dunkel Schetter, C. (forthcoming). Close relationship processes and health: Implications of attachment theory for health and disease. Health Psychology.
Powell, L. H., Lovallo, W. R., Matthews, K. A., Meyer, P., Midgley, A. R., Baum, A. et al. (2002). Physiologic markers of chronic stress in premenopausal, middle-aged women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(3), 502–509.
Proulx, C. M., Helms, H. M., & Buehler, C. (2007). Marital quality and personal well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 69, 576–593.
Pudrovska, T., Schieman, S., Pearlin, L., & Nguyen, K. (2005). The sense of mastery as a mediator and moderator in the association between economic hardship and health in late life. Journal of Aging & Health, 17(5), 634–660. doi: 10.1177/0898264305279874.
Rafaeli, E., & Hiller, A. (2010). Self-complexity: A source of resilience? In J. Reich, A. Zautra & J. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 171–192). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Reich, J., Zautra, A., & Hall, J. (Eds.) (2010). Handbook of Adult Resilience. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Richman, L., Kubzansky, L., Maselko, J., Kawachi, I., Choo, P., & Bauer, M. (2005). Positive emotion and health: Going beyond the negative. Health Psychology, 24(4), 422–429. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.422.
Rini, C. K., Dunkel Schetter, C., Wadhwa, P. D., & Sandman, C. A. (1999). Psychological adaptation and birth outcomes: The role of personal resources, stress, and sociocultural context in pregnancy. Health Psychology, 18, 333–345.
deRoon-Cassini, T. A., Mancini, A. D., Rusch, M. D., & Bonanno, G. A. (2010). Psychopathology and resilience following traumatic injury: A latent growth mixture model analysis. Rehabilitation Psychology, 55(1), 1–11. doi: 10.1037/a0018601.
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611.
Rutter, M. (1996). Stress research: Accomplishments and tasks ahead. In R. J. Haggerty, L. R. Sherrod, N. Garmezy & M. Rutter (Eds.), Stress, Risk, and Resilience in Children and Adolescents: Processes, Mechanisms, and Interventions (pp. 354–385). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1094, 1–12. doi:10.1196/annals.1376.002.
Rutter, M., & Silberg, J. (2002). Gene-environment interplay in relation to emotional and behavioral disturbance. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 463–490. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135223.
Ryff, C. D. (1985). Adult personality development and the motivation for personal growth. In D. Kleiber & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Motivation and Adulthood (Vol. 4, pp. 55–92). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations of the meaning of psychological well-being Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.
Ryff, C. D. (1995). Psychological well being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104.
Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (2003). Thriving in the face of challenge: The integrative science of human resilience. In F. Kessel, P. L. Rosenfield & N. B. Anderson (Eds.), Expanding the Boundaries of Health and Social Science: Case Studies in Interdisciplinary Innovation (pp. 181–205). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (2008). Thriving in the face of challenge: The integrative science of human resilience; Postscript. In F. Kessel, P. L. Rosenfield, N. B. Anderson, F. Kessel, P. L. Rosenfield & N. B. Anderson (Eds.), Interdisciplinary Research: Case Studies from Health and Social Science (pp. 198–227). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
Ryff, C. D., Singer, B., & Palmersheim, K. A. (2004). Social inequalities in health and well-being: The role of relational and religious protective factors. In O. G. Brim, C. D. Ryff & R. C. Kessler (Eds.), A Portrait of Midlife in the U.S. (pp. 90–123). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sabogal, F., Marin, G., Otero-Sabogal, R., Marin, B., & Perez-Stable, E. J. (1987). Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and what doesn’t? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9, 397–412.
Sarason, B. R., Pierce, G. R., & Sarason, I. G. (Eds.) (1990). Social Support: An Interactional View. Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.
Schulz, R., & Beach, S. R. (1999). Caregiving as a risk factor for mortality: The caregiver health effects study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282(23), 2215–2219. doi:10.1001/jama.282.23.2215.
Schwartz, C. E., Peng, C., Lester, N., Daltroy, L., & Goldberger, A. L. (1998). Self-reported coping behavior in health and disease: Assessment with a card sort game. Behavioral Medicine, 24(1), 41–44. doi:10.1080/08964289809596380.
Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: Cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(6), 1025–1041.
Segerstrom, S. C. (2007). Optimism and resources: Effects on each other and on health over 10 years. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(4), 772–786.
Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 601–630. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601.
Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5.
Shaver, J. F., Johnston, S. K., Lentz, M. J., & Landis, C. A. (2002). Stress exposure, psychological distress, and physiological stress activation in midlife women with insomnia. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64(5), 793–802. doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000024235.11538.9A.
Simeon, D., Yehuda, R., Cunill, R., Knutelska, M., Putnam, F. W., & Smith, L. M. (2007). Factors associated with resilience in healthy adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32(8–10), 1149–1152. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.08.005.
Sinha, R. (2008). Chronic stress, drug use, and vulnerability to addiction. In G. R. Uhl (Eds.), Addiction Reviews 2008 (pp. 105–130). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
Snyder, C. R. (2001). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249–275.
Stanton, A. L. (2011). Regulating emotions during stressful experiences: The adaptive utility of coping through emotional approach (pp. 369–386). In S. Folkman (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health and Coping. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
Steinhardt, M., & Dolbier, C. (2008). Evaluation of a resilience intervention to enhance coping strategies and protective factors and decrease symptomatology. Journal of American College Health, 56(4), 445–453. doi:10.3200/JACH.56.44.445-454.
Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist, 38(11), 1161–1173. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.38.11.1161.
Taylor, S. E. (2011). Social support: A review. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of Health Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, S. E., & Stanton, A. L. (2007). Coping resources, coping processes, and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 3377–3401. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091520.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1995). Trauma & Transformation: Growing in the Aftermath of Suffering. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Thoits, P. (2010). Stress and health: Major findings and policy implications. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), Supplement, S41–S53. doi:10.1177/0022146510383499.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and Collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Barrett, L. (2004). Psychological resilience and positive emotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1161–1190. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.
Uchino, B. N. (2004). Social Support and Physical Health: Understanding the Health Consequences of Relationships. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Uddin, M., Aiello, A. E., Wildman, D. E., Koenen, K. C., Pawelec, G., de los Santos, R. et al. (2010). Epigenetic and immune function profiles associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(20), 9470–9475. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910794107.
Unger, M. (2010). Cultural dimensions of resilence among adults. In J. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. S. Hall, Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 404–426). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Urry, H. L., Nitschke, J. B., Dolski, I., Jackson, D. C., Dalton, K. M., Mueller, C. J. et al. (2004). Making a life worth living: Neural correlates of well-being. Psychological Science, 15(6), 367–372. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00686.x.
Wallston, K. A. (2001). Conceptualization and operationalization of perceived control. In A. Baum, T. Revenson & J. E. Singer (Eds.), The Handbook of Health Psychology (pp. 49–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Waugh, C. E., Fredrickson, B. L., & Taylor, S. F. (2008). Adapting to life’s slings and arrows: Individual differences in resilience when recovering from an anticipated threat. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 1031–1046. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.02.005.
Werner, E. E. (1993). Risk, resilience, and recovery: Perspectives from the Kauai longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 503–515. doi:10.1017/S095457940000612X.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but Invincible: A Longitudinal Study of Resilient Children and Youth. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wills, T. A., & DePaulo, B. M. (1991). Interpersonal analysis of the help-seeking process. In C. R. Snyder, D. R. Forsyth, C. R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of Social and Clinical Psychology: The Health Perspective (pp. 350–375). Elmsford, NY, US: Pergamon Press.
Wortman, C. B. (2004). Post-traumatic growth: Progress and problems. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 81–90.
Zautra, A. J., Arewasikporn, A., & Davis, M. C. (2010). Resilience: Promoting well-being through recovery, sustainability, and growth. Research in Human Development, 7(3), 1–119. doi:10.1080/15427609.2010.504431.
Zautra, A. J., Hall, J. S., & Murray, K. E. (2010). Resilience: A new definition of health for people and communities. In J. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. S. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of Adult Resilience (pp. 3–29). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Citing Literature

Volume5, Issue9

September 2011

Pages 634-652

Resilience in the Context of Chronic Stress and Health in Adults

Abstract

References

Citing Literature

References

Information

About Wiley Online Library

Help & Support

Opportunities

Connect with Wiley

Resilience in the Context of Chronic Stress and Health in Adults

Abstract

References

Citing Literature

References

Related

Information